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                <text>"Reactionary, Catholic and Despotic Poland."</text>
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                <text>&lt;p&gt;&amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; The Polish Insurrection demonstrates the extent to which American diplomacy prioritized a strong relationship with Russia during the Civil War. In January 1863, protests against conscription in Poland exploded into a general rebellion against Russian rule.&lt;a title="" href="file:///C:/Users/Samuel/Dropbox/Harvard/SW%2052/Final%20Project/Polish%20Item.docx#_ftn1"&gt;[1]&lt;/a&gt; The official diplomatic response of the United States reveals both the geopolitical conception of Russia as an unofficial ally and the perception of Alexander II as a respectable and just ruler.&lt;/p&gt;&#13;
&lt;p&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp; Since the &lt;em&gt;realpolitik&lt;/em&gt; of European relations in the mid-19&lt;sup&gt;th&lt;/sup&gt; century had already shaped the progression of Russo-American relations, unsurprisingly the relationships between Britain, France, the United States, and Russia would shape American policy regarding Poland. In May, Britain and France requested that the United States join an official statement of disapproval.&lt;a title="" href="file:///C:/Users/Samuel/Dropbox/Harvard/SW%2052/Final%20Project/Polish%20Item.docx#_ftn2"&gt;[2]&lt;/a&gt; As discussed, Britain and France had become the unofficial counterbalance to the &lt;em&gt;de facto&lt;/em&gt; alignment of the United States and Russia, and therefore the American refusal to intervene reinforced this friendship.&lt;/p&gt;&#13;
&lt;p&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp; The language of American diplomats at that time, however, reveals that American unity was not simply a practical response to geopolitics. In his official response to the French, Secretary of State William Seward referenced the &amp;ldquo;enlightened and humane character&amp;rdquo; of Alexander II, so described for his emancipation of the serfs and &amp;ldquo;effective administration of justice.&amp;rdquo;&lt;a title="" href="file:///C:/Users/Samuel/Dropbox/Harvard/SW%2052/Final%20Project/Polish%20Item.docx#_ftn3"&gt;[3]&lt;/a&gt; Such high language demonstrated the respect for Russia that the American government openly espoused, especially in light of its own recent emancipation. Somewhat less appealing was the private comment of Cassius Clay, minister to Russia. In a reply to Seward in June 1863, Clay contrasted &amp;ldquo;&lt;em&gt;liberal &lt;/em&gt;Russia&amp;rdquo; with &amp;ldquo;&lt;em&gt;reactionary&lt;/em&gt;, Catholic and despotic Poland.&amp;rdquo;&lt;a title="" href="file:///C:/Users/Samuel/Dropbox/Harvard/SW%2052/Final%20Project/Polish%20Item.docx#_ftn4"&gt;[4]&lt;/a&gt; At least privately, enthusiasm for Russia both as an ally and a fellow emancipator could lead American diplomats to criticize the Polish insurrection as the enemy of progressive Russian rule.&lt;/p&gt;&#13;
&lt;div&gt;&lt;br clear="all" /&gt;&lt;hr align="left" size="1" width="33%" /&gt;&#13;
&lt;div&gt;&#13;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;a title="" href="file:///C:/Users/Samuel/Dropbox/Harvard/SW%2052/Final%20Project/Polish%20Item.docx#_ftnref1"&gt;[1]&lt;/a&gt; Joseph Wieczerzak, &amp;ldquo;American Reactions to the Polish Insurrection.&amp;rdquo; &lt;em&gt;Polish-American Studies&lt;/em&gt; 22, no. 2. (Jul.-Dec., 1965): 92.&lt;/p&gt;&#13;
&lt;/div&gt;&#13;
&lt;div&gt;&#13;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;a title="" href="file:///C:/Users/Samuel/Dropbox/Harvard/SW%2052/Final%20Project/Polish%20Item.docx#_ftnref2"&gt;[2]&lt;/a&gt; Benjamin Platt Thomas, &lt;em&gt;Russo-American Relations, 1815-1867&lt;/em&gt;. (Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins Press, 1930)&lt;em&gt;, &lt;/em&gt;136-137.&lt;/p&gt;&#13;
&lt;/div&gt;&#13;
&lt;div&gt;&#13;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;a title="" href="file:///C:/Users/Samuel/Dropbox/Harvard/SW%2052/Final%20Project/Polish%20Item.docx#_ftnref3"&gt;[3]&lt;/a&gt; &lt;em&gt;Papers Relating to Foreign Affairs&lt;/em&gt;. (Washington: Government Printing Office, 1864), 667.&lt;/p&gt;&#13;
&lt;/div&gt;&#13;
&lt;div&gt;&#13;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;a title="" href="file:///C:/Users/Samuel/Dropbox/Harvard/SW%2052/Final%20Project/Polish%20Item.docx#_ftnref4"&gt;[4]&lt;/a&gt; &amp;ldquo;American Reactions to the Polish Insurrection,&amp;rdquo; 94.&lt;/p&gt;&#13;
&lt;/div&gt;&#13;
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                <text>Samuel Coffin</text>
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                <text>&lt;div&gt;&#13;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;Papers Relating to Foreign Affairs&lt;/em&gt;. Washington: Government Printing Office, 1864.&lt;/p&gt;&#13;
&lt;/div&gt;&#13;
&lt;div&gt;&#13;
&lt;p&gt;Benjamin Platt Thomas,&amp;nbsp;&lt;em&gt;Russo-American Relations, 1815-1867&lt;/em&gt;. Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins Press, 1930.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Joseph Wieczerzak, &amp;ldquo;American Reactions to the Polish Insurrection.&amp;rdquo;&amp;nbsp;&lt;em&gt;Polish-American Studies&lt;/em&gt;&amp;nbsp;22, no. 2. (Jul.-Dec., 1965): 90-98.&lt;/p&gt;&#13;
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                <text>January 1863-1864</text>
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                <text>Tankus the Henge. "IKEA advert Russia/Россия - Smiling Makes The Day Go Quicker." Youtube.com. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=V8H5qwDOp7I. </text>
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                <text>February 26, 2012. </text>
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                <text>This advertisement is at once bizarre and telling of Russian advertisements as we have experienced them throughout the course. While it begins with a young boy screaming at a poster in his room, it transforms into a cheerful family endeavor to redecorate (with items from IKEA, of course) in an image of what the happy, modern Russian family might look like. There is the quintessential grandmother, two parents, and two adorable children. (One of whom is going through a punk rock stage in her teens.) The use of Western music and clearly Western clothing choices as the teenager basks in the awesomeness of her wardrobe is a fantastic read into the lifestyle that IKEA wants to present to its Russian consumers – buy our wardrobes and fill them with plaid and jeans. This is hip, this is cool, this is modernity. Even the amount of actual stuff featured in the commercial – see the ending scene where the two children are surrounded by all the material comforts of their childhood – is telling for what it promotes as norms of this new consumer culture that the Russian middle class is now buying into. </text>
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                <text>In 1863, many Poles rose up against the Russian government. One of the motivating factors was the religious difference: that Roman Catholic Poland was displeased with the control exerted by the Russian Orthodox Church. But when the uprising was crushed, Russian Orthodox suppression of the Roman Catholic church only increased.&#13;
&#13;
Note that the borders portrayed are not Poland's modern borders, but the rough area of the uprising.</text>
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                <text>Smitha, Frank. "Polish Resistance." Accessed 12 February 2014. 2003 http://www.fsmitha.com/h3/h47-ru5.htm&#13;
Image from http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Rok_1863_Polonia.JPG&#13;
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                <text>http://www.artic.edu/aic/collections/artwork/192623</text>
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                <text>The Revolutionary Age was published from November 1918 to August 1919. Edited by Louis Fraina, the publication was initially based in Boston but moved to New York in the summer of 1919. Shortly thereafter the newspaper was disbanded entirely, giving way to its successor The Communist. Its full title, The Revolutionary Age: A Chronicle and Interpretation of Events in Europe, reflects the European-facing focus of the communist party at the time. In 1918 clear reports of the Bolshevik Revolution were lacking and many of The Revolutionary Age’s contributors, such as John Reed, had themselves witnessed the events. And in these early years the expansionist push of the Soviet Union was felt to be fast-moving in its spread toward Western Europe. A great deal of the news presented followed the spread of socialism in countries such as Germany and France. &#13;
&#13;
This headline, “Withdraw From Russia!” is particularly interesting in contrast to the New York Times headline also presented in this exhibit. Instead of depicting American forces as peacekeepers, the intervention is painted as an act of war. Furthermore – there is a disagreement between the two publications on what the “true Russia” is.  Where The New York Times called Tsarist Russia the true Russia, the Revolutionary Age puts Russianness in the hands of the people: “The Russian people who had the revolutionary energy to overthrow Czarism… would and could overthrow the Soviet Government if they wished to.” </text>
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                <text> Revolutionary Age 23 Nov. 1918: 4. Marxist Internet Archive. Web. 04 May 2014. https://www.marxists.org/history/usa/pubs/revolutionaryage/v1n02-nov-20-1918.pdf</text>
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                <text>Rosen, Robert N. The Jewish Confederates. Univ of South Carolina Press, 2000.; Weeks, Theodore R. From assimilation to antisemitism: the" Jewish question" in Poland, 1850-1914. Northern Illinois Univ Pr, 2006.; Wieczerzak, Joseph. "American Reactions to the Polish Insurrection of 1863." Polish American Studies (1965): 90-98.; Ashkenazi, Elliott. The business of Jews in Louisiana, 1840-1875. University of Alabama Press, 1988.</text>
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                <text>&lt;p&gt;&amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; Alexander II, as the Tsar-Emancipator, provided ideological abolitionists with a new face of Russia that could dispel the previous notions of Russian autocracy and despotism. As noted in the exhibit, Alexander II signed a declaration of emancipation on March 3, 1861. The emancipation of the serfs played a great role in boosting esteem of him among abolitionist Americans as a fellow reformer against forces supporting the regressive Confederacy. Thus, Edward Everett, a Massachusetts politician (and president of Harvard University),&lt;a title="" href="file:///C:/Users/Samuel/Dropbox/Harvard/SW%2052/Final%20Project/Alexander%20II%20Item.docx#_ftn1"&gt;[1]&lt;/a&gt; wrote in glowing terms of the &amp;ldquo;enlightened Prince&amp;rdquo; who gave his support to the Union against a Confederacy openly avowing its foundation on &amp;ldquo;the cornerstone of Slavery.&amp;rdquo;&lt;a title="" href="file:///C:/Users/Samuel/Dropbox/Harvard/SW%2052/Final%20Project/Alexander%20II%20Item.docx#_ftn2"&gt;[2]&lt;/a&gt; Cassius Clay would echo such praise after his own personal encounters with the Tsar. He told one American audience in 1862 that &amp;ldquo;not only Alexander, but &lt;em&gt;his whole family are with you&lt;/em&gt;, men, women, and children.&amp;rdquo;&lt;a title="" href="file:///C:/Users/Samuel/Dropbox/Harvard/SW%2052/Final%20Project/Alexander%20II%20Item.docx#_ftn3"&gt;[3]&lt;/a&gt; Even if much of the Russo-American alignment had been built on resisting Britain and France, American abolitionists saw Alexander II as a personal friend and one of the few world leaders advocating a process of reform similar to that of American emancipation.&lt;/p&gt;&#13;
&lt;p&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/p&gt;&#13;
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&lt;p&gt;&lt;a title="" href="file:///C:/Users/Samuel/Dropbox/Harvard/SW%2052/Final%20Project/Alexander%20II%20Item.docx#_ftnref2"&gt;[2]&lt;/a&gt; Edward Everett. &amp;ldquo;The Sympathy of Russia with the United States, Views of Edward Everett,&amp;rdquo; &lt;em&gt;New York Herald, &lt;/em&gt;&amp;nbsp;reprinted in &lt;em&gt;New York Times, &lt;/em&gt;October 15, 1861.&lt;/p&gt;&#13;
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&lt;p&gt;&lt;a title="" href="file:///C:/Users/Samuel/Dropbox/Harvard/SW%2052/Final%20Project/Alexander%20II%20Item.docx#_ftnref3"&gt;[3]&lt;/a&gt; Benjamin Platt Thomas, &lt;em&gt;Russo-American Relations, 1815-1867&lt;/em&gt;. (Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins Press, 1930)&lt;em&gt;, &lt;/em&gt;129.&lt;/p&gt;&#13;
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&lt;p&gt;Benjamin Platt Thomas,&amp;nbsp;&lt;em&gt;Russo-American Relations, 1815-1867&lt;/em&gt;. Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins Press, 1930.&lt;/p&gt;&#13;
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                <text>Note: does not appear to have rights information on the website since it is unofficial. Since the website (from which the main image was set) is in all Russian, however, there is a possibility that the rights were embedded and I missed it even though I translated the page.</text>
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                <text>The Bolshoi Theater, one of the most storied and dramatic artistic sites in modern Russian history, encapsulates several different aspects of Russian history and culture.  Founded by Catherine the Great in 1776 to help promote the ballet and the arts in Russia, the Bolshoi Theater has become centrally important to not only specific events and instances in Russian history, but also in defining the changing concept of “Russianness” over time.  The sociopolitical history and material changes of the Bolshoi Theater offer a juxtaposing, unique, and ever-changing lens through which to understand the domestic and international takes on “Russianness.”</text>
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